General Bibliography  of Islam

Image: Tomb of Itamad-ud-Daulah, Agra

Bibliography compiled by Arthur F. Buehler, (now at LSU)

Thanks, Art!

 

Table of Contents

Introduction

Until recently, Western scholars usually studied Indian Islam along with Persian to become civil servants in India. Their initial work was essentially translating pre-modern Muslim scholarship and adapting it to fit western categories of thought. In the larger picture of Islamic studies, there has been a trend characterized by a philological-Arabic bias, emphasizing the Middle East and the 'high culture'. Very recently research of 'peripheral areas' of the Islamic world has been initiated, indicating an awareness of the various different cultural expressions of Islam. Scholars are tending to appreciate categories used by Muslims themselves to supplement the more general use of relatively neutral socio-cultural categories. In the study of Indian Islam, recent studies are more sensitive to the specific non-Arab cultural context and often focus on the practices and beliefs of the everyday Muslim.

The indispensable reference source for Islam is The Encyclopedia of Islam, New edition, (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1954-). There are five volumes and articles are arranged according to vernacular (usually Arabic) terms, e.g., for 'India' look up 'Hind'. There is a limited glossary in Frederick Denny's An Introduction to Islam (New York: Macmillam, 1985) if one needs to find the appropriate Arabic term. This encyclopedia has not been completed yet, but the old edition (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1913-1936) is still useful. For a bibliographic search on any aspect of Islam, there is J.D. Pearson's Index Islamicus (Cambridge, England: Heffer, 1958). Entries are usually cross-referenced and there is a section on Indian Islam.

General Works

These general works usually begin at the time of the first Arab conquest in 711 CE and finish at the time of Indian independence, providing a conspectus of the modern literature. Books written by either Pakistani or Indian Muslims tend to reflect different national biases on certain issues. In M. Mujeeb's The Indian Muslims (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1967), Indian Islamic history is divided into three periods, each part discussing orthodoxy, socio-cultural life, and Sufism. It is apologetic in tone, anti-partition in bias, and uses out-dated stereotypes, e.g., why Hindus converted to Islam. However, Mujeeb nicely introduces various aspects of Indo-Muslim culture including architecture, art, social life. I. H. Qureshi's The Muslim Community of the Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent (610-1947) (Gravenhage, 1963) contrasts sharply with its pro-Pakistan stance and description of Akbar's achievements as 'a perilous triumph'.

For a more balanced treatment, Annemarie Schimmell's Islam in the Indian Subcontinent (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1980) and Aziz Ahmad's Studies in Islamic Culture in the Indian Environment (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964) are both recommended. Schimmel highlights different trends in Indian Islam by emphasizing religious personalities. Ahmad analyzes Muslim India in relation to the Islamic world (710-1947) and to Hindu India (710-1830).

History

General histories include the monumental Cambridge History of India, Vols. 3 and 4, (1923-53) done from a British imperial point of view. A shorter version is The Oxford History of India, 3rd ed., ed. T. G. Percival Spear (OUP, 1958). For general Mughal history., The Rise and Fall of the Mughal Empire (Allahabad: Central Book Depot, 1956) by Ram P. Tripathi is a good survey. Irfan Habib has written a revisionist study of Mughal economics in The Agrarian System of Mughal India 1556-1707 (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1963) refuting William E. Moreland, The Agrarian System of Moslem India (Cambridge, England: W. Heffer, 1929).

The primary sources for Akbar's reforms are Abu Fazl's Akbar Nameh [2800 pp.!], a year by year account of Akbar's reign beginning with Akbar's horoscope and a astrological analysis, and the Ain-e Akbari (Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1939-49) [1800 pp.!] which is a gazetteer of Akbar's empire. Both works are in mediocre translation. Although a definitive work on Akbar has yet to be done, Sri Ram Sharma includes a wealth of data along with a balanced viewpoint in The Religious Policy of the Mughal Emperors (New York: Asian Publishing House, 1962) He is especially interested in the persecution of Hindus. See also Ram Prasad Tripathi's Rise and Fall of the Mughal Empire(Allahabad, 1956).

For time of Aurangzeb and after, the authority is Jadunath Sarkar who is non-partisan does not neglect economic aspects of human history. See his Mughal Administration (Calcutta, 1920) and Studies in Aurangzeb's Reign (Calcutta, 1933). The complete history is in his Fall of the Muslim Empire, 4 vols. (Calcutta, 1950) and History of Aurangzeb, 5 vols. (Calcutta, 1912-16). A more political treatment is Beni Prasad's History of Jahangir (OUP, 1922).

Other historical sources include:

Al-Beruni. Alberuni's India. tr. E. C. Sachau 2 vols. Lahore: Mubarak Ali, 1962. Fair translation. See Ainslee Embree's abridgement Alberuni's India. New York: Norton, 1971.

Babur. Babur-Namah (Memoirs). 2 vols. trans. by Annette S. Beveridge London: Luzac, 1922. A famous, candid autobiography translated from the Persian. Wheeler Thackson Jr. is currently translating it from its original Chaghatay.

Briggs, John trans. History of the Rise of Mahomedan Power in India until 1612. 4 vols. A translation of Firishta's Tarikh-i Firishta. Firishta is reliable observer and discusses both north and south India from the pre-Mogul period.

Dale, Steven F. Islamic Society on the South Asian Frontier. A careful study on the Mappilas and their reaction to the Portuguese after 1498 and the effect of British rule after 1792 as they competed for social and economic influence with the Hindus.

Eliot, Sir H. M. and J. Dowson eds. The History of India as told by its own Historians. 8 vols. London 1867-77. repr. 1966. Three of these sources have been critically studied by P. Hardy, Historians of Medieval India. London: Luzac, 1960. See also Eliot's Bibliographical Index to the Historians of Muhammedan India. 4 vols. London, 1850. repr. Dehli:Idarah-i Adabiyat-i Delhi, 1981.

Gidwani, N. N. and Navalani, K. A Guide to Reference Materials only on India. 2 vols. Volume two pp. 1054-1066 contains bibliographies of bibliographies on the period of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal empire.

Habib, Mohammad and Nizami, Khaliq Ahmad eds. A Comprehensive History of India. Vol. V: The Delhi Sultanate, 1206-1526. Delhi: Indian History Congress, 1970. Includes pre-Sultanate history and that of all the medieval states.

Hasrat, Bikrama Jit. Dara Shikoh: Life and Works. Calcutta: Visvabharati, 1953. The best work on Dara Shikoh. Most of the book deals with summaries of his books.

MacLean, D. N. Religion and society in Arab Sind. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1988. Discusses how Arabs exercised authority from 711-1025, non-Muslim religions, and the the mechanisms encouraging conversion.

Nizami, Khaliq Ahmad. Some Aspects of Religion and Politics in India during the Thirteenth Century. Aligarh: Muslim University, 1961.

. On History and Historians of Medieval India. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1983. A must before reading any primary sources written by medieval court historians. A useful companion volume to Hardy's book.

Qureshi, Ishtiaq Husain. Akbar, the architect of the Mughal Empire. Karachi: Maref, 1978. A non-critical emphasis on the political/historical aspects of Akbar's life.

Rizvi, S. A. A Religious and intellectual History of the Muslims in Akbar's Reign, with special references to Abul Fazl. New Delhi: 1975.

Sarkar, Sir Jadunath ed. The History of Bengal. Vol. 2. The Muslim Period 1200-1757. Dacca, 1948.

Sherwani, H. K. and Joshi, P. M., eds. History of Medieval Deccan, 1295-1724) . 2 vols. Hyderabad: Government of Andhra Pradesh, 1973.-74.

Sufi, B. M. D. Kashir, being a History of Kashmir. 2 vols. Lahore, 1949.

Sufism

The definitive introductory work on Sufism is Annemarie Schimmel's Mystical Dimensions of Islam (Chapel Hill, 1975). Spencer Trimingham's The Sufi Orders in Islam (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971) is useful for a more historical perspective on the development of Sufism. He is more a specialist in African Sufism and Arabic and has made quite a few errors in his treatment of Indian Islam. A useful but uncritical treatment of Indian Sufism is J. A. Subhan's Sufism, its saints and shrines: an introduction to the study of Sufism with special references to India (New York: Samuel Weisner Inc., 1970). Saiyed Athar Abbas Rizvi's A History of Sufism in India 2 vols. (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1978) has much information, but his books should be used with caution.

Considering the amount of material available, the study of Sufism in India has barely begun. The difficulty of working with the original sources is one of the factors contributing to the perpetuation of myths about certain Sufis and other aspects of Islam in India. For example, Rizvi perceives Ahmad Sirhindi (d. 1624) as a narrow-minded Muslim disrupting communal harmony while Abu al-Kalam Azad thinks he is a reformer creating an atmosphere for Aurangzeb's policies. In the cross-fire, Yohanan Friedmann in Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi: an outline of his thought and a study of his image in the eyes of Posterity, (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1971) has conclusively shown that Sirhindi was severely criticized by the religious elite of his time for his lack of respect toward the Prophet and Aurangzeb forbid his work to be circulated. Wilfred Cantwell Smith has written an article, "The Crystallization of religious communities in Mughal India" in Yad-Name-ye Irani-ye Minorsky (Tehran, 1969), implicating Sirhindi as a catalyst in the formation of separate religious communities starting in the seventeenth century.

Another highly-debated issue is that of Hindu to Muslim conversion. Richard Eaton is one of the first to actually document the Islamization process in Sufis of Bijapur, 1300-1700, (Princeton, 1978). His classification of Indian Sufis into warrior Sufis, urban reformists, rustic literati, landed elites and dervishes is helpful. The latest, most concise treatment of Islamization in India is Eaton's article "Approaches to the Study of Conversion to Islam in India" in Richard C. Martin's Approaches to Islam in Religious Studies (Tucson, 1985).

Other works on Sufism include:

Asani, Ali. "Sufi Poetry in the Folk Tradition of Indo-Pakistan" Religion and Literature. 20.1 (Spring, 1989): pp. 81-94. A taste of his work on the Islamic vernacular and ginan literature.

Baljon, J. M. S. Religion and Thought of Shah Wali Allah Dihlawi. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1986. Poorly written, difficult to use, but the only acceptable study available. Much of the book explains Shah Wali Allah's terminology which is quite useful.

Census of India. Beliefs and practices associated with Muslim Pirs in two cities of India (Delhi and Lucknow). vol. 1. Part VII-B, 1966.

Currie, P. M. The shrine Cult of Mu'In al-Din Chishti of Ajmer. OUP, forthcoming. A 1978 Ph.D. dissertation from Oxford University. [This was published in 1989]

De Jong, Fred. 'Note sur les confreries soufies a Sri Lanka' in Les ordres mystiquesdans l'Islam. ed. A. Popovic and G. Veinstein. Paris, 1986. De Jong specializes in little-known Sufi groups and is a geneological expert of the major orders.

Friedmann, Yohanan, ed. Islam in Asia. Vol. 1. Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1981. Includes articles by respected scholars on Qalandars, conversion, Muslim popular literature in Tamil, and Sufi hospices in Bihar.

Hussaini, Syed Shah Khusro. Sayyid Muhammad al-Husayni-i Gisudiraz: On Sufism. Delhi: Idarah-i Adabiyat-i Delhi, 1983. The only treatment of Gesudiraz in a western language.

Lawrence, Bruce. Notes from a distant Flute: the extant literature of the pre-Mughal Indian Sufism. Tehran: Imperial Academy of Philosophy, 1978. A sampling of the various genres of Sufi literature with Persian texts.

Lewis, P. Pirs, Shrines and Pakistani Islam. Rawalpindi: 1985. The best brief and authoritative introduction to Sufism and Islam in Pakistan.

Martin, Richard C. ed. Islam in Local Contexts. Leiden: E. J. Brill: 1982. Includes articles on Sufism and Islamization.

Maneri, Sharafuddin. The Hundred Letters. trans. Paul Jackson, S.J. (New York: Paulist Press, 1980). A first-rate translation of a fourteen-century Firdausi Sufi of Bihar.

Mayne, Peter. Saints of the Sind. London: John Murray, 1956. This is a humorous volume written by an adventurous Pashto-speaking Britisher and his escapades with so-called Sufis.

Nizami, Khaliq Ahmad. The article 'Chishtiyya' in the New Encyclopedia of Islam. Thorough with silsila charts.

Qureshi, R. B. Sufi Music of India and Pakistan: Sound, Contest and Meaning in Qawwali. Cambridge: 1986. Excellent ethnomusical study of Sufi singing with 32 music scores and a cassette. 

Ramakrishna, Lajawanti. Panjabi Sufi Poets. London, 1938. repr. Delhi, 1975.

Rizvi, S. A. A. Muslim Revivalist Movements Northern India in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century. Agra: 1965. Good for bibliography on Naqshbandi and Mahdavi movements.

Roy, Asim. The Islamic Syncretistic Tradition of Bengal. Princeton, 1983. A marvelous study of the cultural mediators who restored cultural continuity between the Islamic great and little traditions and the Hindu tradition, e.g., Muhammad is Krsna; Fatima is shakti; and creation resulted from Muhammad's drops of perspiration.

Schimmel, Annemarie. Pain and Grace: a study of two Indo-Muslim poets of the eighteenth century. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1976. A study of Mir Dard and Shah Abdul Latif.

. Liebe zu dem Einen: Texte aus der mystischen Tradition des indischen Islam. Cologne, 1986. Translated selections from Arabic, Persian, Urdu, and Sindhi with commentary.

Indo-Muslim Society and Culture

The primary Indo-Muslim social distinction differentiates between the Ashraf, Muslims of foreign ancestry, and the Ajlaf, Muslims descended from local converts. The Ashraf tend to be status categories and the Ajlaf are organized more along jati-caste lines. Muslim social organization reflects the diversity of India's population and often is inconsistent with normative non-Indian Muslim behavior, e.g., marriage prohibitions. In addition to kinship patterns, there are networks of allegiances to pirs, especially in Pakistan. Detailed anthropological studies of Muslims on the Subcontinent have just begun.

Ahmad, Imtiaz. Ritual and Religion among Muslims in India. New Delhi: Manohar, 1981. Includes Muslim ethnicity in South India and Kashmir in addition to shrine and Muharram ritual.

, ed. Caste and Social Stratification among Muslims in India, Delhi: Manohar, 1973. Each article discusses the subject in different regions in India from a social-anthropological or sociological point of view.

, Family, Kinship and Marriage among Muslims in India. Delhi:Manohar, 1976.

American Anthropological Association. Anthropology in Pakistan: recent socio-cultural and archeological perspectives. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1982.

Burton., Richard F. Sindh and the Races that inhabit the Valley of the Indus. London 1851. redr. OUP 1973.

Census of India. Rajasthan: Fairs and Festivals Vol. XIV. Part VII-B, 1966

Crooke, William. The Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India. 2 Vols. repr. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal 1968. First edition: 1893.

Donnan, H. Marriage among Muslims. Preference and Choice in Northern Pakistan. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1988.

Ewing, Katherine, ed. Shari`at and Ambiguity in South Asian Islam. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988. Predominantly anthropological studies.

Frykenberg, R.E.ed. Delhi Through the Ages: studies in urban culture and society. New OUP, 1986.

. Impact of Islam on Orissa Culture: Celebrations of 1400 Hijri Era. Orissa, 1981. Hindu-Muslim relations.

Jeffery, Patricia. Frogs in a Well: Indian women in Purdah. London: Zed Press, 1979. An account of women who live at the Sufi shrine of Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi.

Khan, Mumtaz Ali. Muslims in the Process of Rural Development in India. A study of Karnataka. New Delhi, 1984. Discusses social and economic conditions.

. Mass Conversions of Meenokshipuram. Madras, 1983. Discusses the religious of Muslims in Tamilnadu.

Madan, T. N. Muslim Communities of South Asia. Delhi: Vikas, 1976. Muslim-Hindu interactions from sociological perspective including Nepal.

Meer Hassan Ali (Mrs.). Observations on the Mussulmauns of India. A description by an Englishwoman married to a Shici noble from Lucknow who lived with his family from 1816-1828.

Misra, Rekha. Women in Mughal India. Delhi, 1967. An interesting but uncritical look at women's activities behind the scenes in politics, e.g., Nur Jahan, and their social activities. One chapter on the lower class women.

Mitchell, G., ed. The Islamic Heritage of Bengal. Paris: 1984. Research papers on the preservation of cultural heritage.

Muller-Stellrecht, Irmtraud. Materialien zur Ethnographie von Dardistan aus den nachgelassenen Aufzeichnugen von D. L. R. Lorimer. 3 vols. Graz: 1979. The chapter introductions are in German and the rest is Lorimer's seminal work in English including the history, folk tales, and geneological charts of the people living in Hunza, Gilgit, Chitral and Yasin.

Papanek, Hanna and Minault, Gail eds. Separate Worlds: studies of purdah in South Asia. Delhi: Chanakya Publishers, 1982.

Roy, Shibani. The Status of Women in North India. Delhi: 1979.

Schimmel, Annemarie. Pearls from the Indus: Studies in Sindhi Culture. Jamshoro, Pakistan: Sindhi Adabi Board, 1986.

Shurreef, Jaffur. Customs of the Mussalmans of India. trans. from Urdu by G. A. Hercklots. Lahore: Al Irshad, 1973. First edition: 1832. All you wanted to know about puberty rites, charms, astrology, vows, marriage, exorcism and much more.

Sulaiman, S. M. Islam, Indian Religions and Tamil Culture. Madras: 1977.

Modern Islam and Reform Movements

In the aftermath of the Mughal empire, Muslim intellectual leadership was transferred from the former ruling elite to the ulama', the religious elite. This post-Mughal movement was largely a reaction of the Shariah-minded, and was followed by the pressure of modernism after the consolidation of the British power. The most prominent of these ulama was Shah-Wali Allah of Delhi (1703-1762). Soon after his death, the British developed and applied Anglo-Muhammadan Law, which has been studied by A. A. A. Fyzee's in his detailed study Outlines of Muhammandan Law (London, 19640. After the 1857 "Mutiny" the challenge of modernism became acute. Sayyid Ahmad Khan (1817-1898) organized the first program of educational and social reforms based on a re-interpretation of Islam and a loyalty to British power, often referred to as the "Aligarh movement'. David S. Lelyveld analyzes this movement and its impact on the intellectual leadership of Indian Muslims in Aligarh's First Generation: Muslim Solidarity in British India. (Princeton, 1972).

The traditionalist, Deobandi theologians reacted strongly to Sayyid Ahmad Khan's modernist rationalism and apologetics. Although the Deobandis did not reject Western education, they were concerned about the future of traditional Islamic religious education in India. Barbara Metcalf discusses the Deobandi school in her well-written but one-dimensional Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860-1900 (Princeton, 1982).

The Ahmadi movement, partially in a Mahdist tone, was founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian (d. 1908) who declared himself to be a prophet, both receiving direct revelations from God and fulfilling the role of the resurrected Jesus. Conversion by preaching was his method of peaceful jihad. This movement has been somewhat critically studied by Spencer Lavan in The Ahmadiya (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1974).

From the Sabiriyyah Sufi order linked to Shah Wali Allah Mawlana Muhammad Ilyas (d. 1944) desired to minimize differences between the schools of law and increase Muslim awareness of Islam while avoiding politics. His Tablighi Jamacat movement is very popular in Pakistan while not being overtly Sufi in practice. M. Anwar ul Haq has written a rather uncritical biographical account in The Faith Movement of Maulana Muhammad Ilyas (London: Allen and Unwin, 1972).

The most eminent figure in twentieth century Indian Islam is Muhammad Iqbal (1875-1938), poet, philosopher and political thinker. A relatively systematic treatment of his philosopical thought is presented in his Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam (Lahore, 1986). A. J. Arberry has translated his narrative poem, Javid Nama (London, 1966). For an extensive bibliography, of Iqbal's writings and studies of Iqbal, see Annemarie Schimmel's Gabriel's Wing (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1963).

Further reading:

Ahmad, Aziz. Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan OUP, 1967. An overview of modernism from Sayyid Ahmad Khan to Mawdudi

and Grunebaum, G.E. eds. Muslim Self-Statement in India and Pakistan 1857-1968. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1970. Good primary source material and biobibliography.

Khan, Muin ud-din Ahamad, A bibliographical introduction to Modern Islamic development in India and Pakistan, 1700-1955. Appendix J. of the Asiatic Society of Pakistan. Vol. 6. Dacca, 1959.

McDonough, Sheila. The Authority of the Past: A Study of Three Muslim Modernists. AAR Studies in Religion, 1970:1. A very brief, study of Sir Ahmad Khan, Muhammad Iqbal, and Ghulam Ahmad Parvez.

Minault, Gail. The Khilifat Movement: religious symbolism and political mobilization in India. New Yourk 1982. A survey of the quest for pan-Indian Islam and the unification of the Ind-Muslim community on the basis of prserving the Ottoman sultanate.

Smith, Wilfred Cantwell. Modern Islam in India: A Social Analysis. London: Victor Gollancz, 1946. A perceptive view of Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan, Amir Ali, Iqbal and various political movements since 1857.

Islamic Arts and Architecture

Architecturally, a dozen major regional styles can be identified in pre-Moghul Muslim India which were somewhat unified through the expansion of the Mughal empire. For example, in Bengal and the Panjab brickwork predominates; in Gujarat Muslim art is expressed in elaborate stonework; and Persian craftsmen produced distinctly Persian buildings in Bidar and Dawlatabad which contrast with remarkable wood structures in Kashmir. There is no single comprehensive work of scholarly quality on Islamic building in India largely because the historical development of technique, structure, and decoration has yet to be worked out. Thus, one has to concentrate on key monuments like the Taj Mahal or Fatepur Sikri which have been studied in some depth.

General works:

Desai, Ziauddin A. Mosques of India. Delhi: Ministry of Information, 1966.

Goetz, Hermann. "Moghul School" article in The Encyclopedia of World Art. Vol. 10. pp. 214-235. New York: McGraw Hill, 1963.

Husain, A. B. The Manara in India, Dacca, 1970.

Marshall, J. H. The Monuments of Muslim India/ in Cambridge history of India. Vol. 3. Cambridge, 1937. pp. 568-640. Dry.

Nath, Ram. Calligraphic Art in Mughal Architecture. Calcutta: Iran Society, 1982.

. History of Mughal Architecture. Vols. 1-2. New Delhi: Abhinav, 1982.

. Islamic Architecture and Culture in India. New Delhi: B. R. Publishing Corp., 1982.

Schimmel, Annemarie. Islam in India and Pakistan. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1982. A concise volume on visual arts and architecture with a useful introduction on the subject.

Specific places:

Begley, Wayne. "The Myth of the Taj Mahal and a New theory of its Symbolic Meaning." Art Bulletin. 61 (1979): pp. 7-37. His thesis that the Taj was designed as a symbolic replica of the heavenly Throne of God is debatable. His comparisons of the Taj with Ibn al-Arabi's diagrams of the Throne are fascinating.

. "Amanat Khan and the Calligraphy on the Taj Mahal." Art Bulletin 63 (1981-2): pp. 5-49.

Brand, Michael and Lowery, Glenn D. ed. Fatepur Sikri: a sourcebook. Cambridge, Mass: aga Khan Program, 1985.

Chaghtai, Muhammed Abdulla. Le Tadj Mahal d'Agra. Brussels, 1938. The best work done on the Taj to date.

Gascoigne, Bamber. The Great Moghuls. An interesting but nonscholarly introduction to the Mughal court culture and architecture.

Lowry, Glenn D. "Humayun's Tomb, Form, Function, and Meaning in Early Moghul Architecture." Muqarnas. Vol. 4 pp. 133-149.

Moynihan, Elizabeth. Paradise as a Garden: in Persia and Moghul India. New York: G. Braziller, 1979. The best source on gardens of the era.

Nath, Ram. The Immortal Taj Mahal: the evolution of the tomb in Moghul architecture. Bombay: Taraparevala and Sons, 1972. Probably the best book on the Taj in in English until Begley's forthcoming book gets published.

Yazdani, Ghulam. Bidar. Its History and Monuments. London, 1947. An exhaustive catalogue of monuments with a brief analysis of architectural development.

Zajadacz-Hastenrath, Salome. Chaukhandi-Graber. Studien zur Grabkunst in Sind and Baluchistan. Wiesbaden, 1978. A study of sylistic developments of Chaukhandi tombs showing them to be a unique development.

Painting and miniature painting:

Beach, Milo C. The Grand Mogul. Imperial Painting in India 1600-1660. Williamstown, Nass., 1978.

Ray, Miharranjan. Mughal Court Painting. Calcutta: Indian Museum, 1975. An informed social and technical analysis of Mughal painting with selections of paintings.

Stchoukine, Ivan. Les peintures des manuserits timurids. Paris, 1954. He sorts out historical evidence on painting, analyzes techniques, and judges them by western standards. Outdated.

Welch, Stuart Cary. The Art of Mughal India. Paintings and Precious Objects. New York: 1964. Welch has literally created the modern study of Mughal painting.

. Imperial Mughal Painting. New York, 1977.

Miscelleneous

Ahmad, Aziz. An Intellectual History of Islam in India. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1969.

Ahmed, Akbar S. Religion and Politics in Muslim Society. Order and conflict in Pakistan. Cambridge, 1983.

. Pakistan Society: Islam, ethnicity, and leadership in South Asia. Karachi: OUP, 1986.

Bibliography of the Northwest Frontier Province. Islamabad, 1969.

Chandra, Jogdish. Bibliography of Indian Art, History and Archeology (A. K. Coomaraswamy Memorial Volume 1). Delhi: Delhi Printers, Prakashan, 1978.

Hollister, John N. The Shia of India. London: Luzac, 1953. Written by a missionary and describes the history and characteristics of the various Shia groups. Dated.

Lambrick, Peter. The Terrorist, London: Ernest Benn, 1972. A little-known translation of a disciple's journal whose pir was Pir Pigaro of sind with a private army. His disciples, who believed their pir to be the 'shadow of God on earth', caused the British a bit of trouble.

Lawrence, Bruce. Shahrastani on the Indian Religions. The Hague:Houton, 1976. Shahrastani (d. 1183) is a medieval Ash ari theologian from Baghdad who used Sabean categories to define Hindu religiosity. He displays an openness to Hinduism not found previously in any other Muslim writing.

ed. The Rose and the Rock: mystical and rational elements in the intellectual history of South Asian Islam. Durham: Duke University Press, 1979.

Marshall, D. H. Mughals in India: a bibliographic survey. London, 1967.

Metcalf, Barbara. Moral Conduct and Authority: the place of adab in South Asian Islam. Berkeley: University of California, 1984. Adab is a moral-behavioral concept related to how one should live. Obviously, different Muslims have radically divergent views on correct adab. It includes a few articles on contemporary Sufi-related topics, one on Jewelry of Paradise treatise which has shaped Muslim women's behavior for the last century, and Many other arcane aspects of adab.

Naipaul, V.S. Among the Believers. New York: Knopf, 1981. Sensationalism in Pakistan bv a non-Islamicist.

Nanji, Azim. The Nizari Ismaili tradition in the Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent. Delmar: 1978. Discusses the spread of Islam in a vernacular context, issues of syncretism, and how to analyze folk narrratives in a historical context.

Nizami, K.A., ed. Medieval India--A Miscellany. 3 Vols. Aligarh, 1975. It includes articles such as imperial firmans relating to the construction of the Taj Mahal, aspects of the land revenue system, Sufi-ruler relations, Mughal court politics, the use of intoxicants and intelligence services in Mughal times.

Pearson, M.N. Merchants and Rulers in Gujarat: the response to the Portuguese in the sixteenth century. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976. A careful study with a bibliographical essay.

Rizvi, S. A. A. A Socio-intellectual history of Isna`ashari Shi is in India. 2 vols. Canberra 1986. Like an encyclopedia with no analysis and high-culture oriented.

Rothermund, D., ed. Islam in Southern Asia. A survey of current research. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1975. Discussions of Islamic institutions, education, historiography, and anthropological fieldwork.

Schimmel, Annemarie. Islamic Literatures of India in J. Gonda ed. History of Indian LiteratureVIII 1. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1973.

. Classical Urdu Literature from the Beginning to Iqbal in J. Gonda ed. History of Indian Literature VIII 3. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1975.

Soma Reddy, R., Hindu and Muslim Religious Institutions, Andhra Desa 1300-1600. Madras: New Era, 1984. Although it is not written critically, it is a sensitive treatment of the topic by an Osmania University professor who reads both Telegu and Persian.

Troll, Christian, ed. Islam in India. Vols. 1 and 2. Delhi: Vikas 1982. Written by a Jesuit working in Delhi's Vidyajyoti Institute. Miscellaneous articles include: the first Jesuit mission to Akbar and various Quran translations in Indian vernacular languages. Vol.3 is subtitled Islamic Experience in Contemporary Thought and is a compendium of Syed Vahiduddin's contributions.

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